William James' Pragmatism as a policing philosophy?

Revised 032109

The Unspoken Influence of William James' Pragmatism on Modern Policing:

A Caution

for Police Ethics Trainers

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The folly of mistaking a paradox for a discovery, a metaphor for a proof, a torrent of verbiage

for a spring of capital truths, and oneself for an oracle, is inborn in us.

- Paul Valery

A lie told often enough becomes truth.

- Vladimir Lenin

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This page explores the origins of the curious policing philosophy that le

community leaders to require

that

law enforcement officials maintain a community

perception

of safety and the implications of such a

philosophy

for law enforcement ethics trainers.

The discussion explores some of the roots of policing in

the

United States and attempts to link

modern policing to William James' version of Pragmatism.

Dr. Frank Kardasz

. November 2, 2008

The following sentence is an excerpt from the performance achievement plan

listing a

goal

of a police

commander

major

U.S. City:

Crime Suppression: To become the safest major city, maintain a high

perception

of safety in the

community.

Measuring the success of the goal was done by conducting telephone surveys of citizens and asking the

citizens about their opinions of the police department. The police commanders' compensation package

and pay increases were based partly upon the success of meeting the goal of maintaining a high

perception of safety.

Making the police responsible for changing community perceptions

eads to the following questions

How did policing reach a point where a goal includes maintaining the fickle community

perception?

Why are law enforcement officers required to perform the "perception-maintenance" work

sometimes associated with public-relations firms or hypnotists?

Some law enforcement agencies have witnessed a growth in the number of employees assigned to

community or media relations functions in recent decades. Is there a growing trend towards

perception-maintenance at the expense of "street" enforcement work?

What are the ramifications of policies that encourage perception-maintenance for instructors of
ethics?

Peel’s Police Reform Principles of 1829

The framework for modern policing in the United States emerged from England in the mid

1800’s’. Sir Robert Peel is credited as the father of modern policing. Peel was a British statesman and

member of Parliament. In 1829 he helped reform and organize London’s police (Peel, Sir Robert, 2003).

Peel developed nine principles forming a model for policing that was later transplanted to America as a

basis

for its police service (Taylor, 1984). Some of the principles are still recognized by police in the United

States

parts of the community based policing model. A review of the principles helps to show how

modern theory

developed. The nine principles (Sir Robert Peel’s, 1829) were:

1. To prevent crime and disorder, as an alternative to their repression by military force and by

severity

legal

punishment.

2. To recognize always that the power of the police to fulfill their functions and duties is dependent

public

approval of their existence, actions, and behavior, and on their ability to secure and

maintain

public

respect.

3. To recognize always that to secure and maintain the respect and approval of the public means

also

the

securing of the willing cooperation of the public in the task of securing observance of laws.

4. To recognize always that the extent to which the cooperation of the public can be secured

diminishes,

proportionately, the necessity of the use of physical force and compulsion for achieving

police objectives.

5. To seek and to preserve public favor, not by pandering to public opinion, but by constantly

demonstrating

absolutely impartial service to law, in complete independence of policy, and without

regard

to the justice or

injustices of the substance of individual laws; by ready offering of individual

service and

friendship to all

members of the public without regard to their wealth or social standing;

ready exercise

of courtesy and

friendly good humor; and by ready offering of individual sacrifice in

protecting and

preserving life.

6. To use physical force only when the exercise of persuasion, advice, and warning is found to be

insufficient to

obtain public cooperation to an extent necessary to secure observance of law or to

restore

order; and to use

only the minimum degree of physical force which is necessary on any

particular

occasion

for achieving a police

objective.

7. To maintain at all times a relationship with the public that gives reality to the historic tradition that

the

police

are the public and the public are the police; the police being only members of the public

who

are

paid

to give

full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every citizen, in the

interests of

community

welfare and

existence.

8. To recognize always the need for strict adherence to police-executive functions, and to refrain

from

even

seeming to usurp the powers of the judiciary of avenging individuals or the state, and of

authoritatively

judging

guilt and punishing the guilty.

9. To recognize always that the test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder, and not

the

visible

evidence of police action in dealing with them.

Pragmatism’s Influence

This section briefly examines the philosophy of pragmatism, with emphasis on William James’ beliefs.

Pragmatism is reviewed here as a prelude to later examination of its apparent application to modern

police

community relations and the possible influence on police ethics training.

Pragmatism is a philosophy based on the belief that the meaning and truth of an idea is a function of its

practical

outcome (American Pragmatism – 1, n.d.). Emerging first in the United States in the late 1800's,

pragmatism

attempted to apply scientific and social developments of the era to prior metaphysical

beliefs.

Pragmatists are

anti-absolutists, believing that principles are working hypotheses rather than

binding

axioms.

Pragmatism is

sometimes associated with experimentalism. Pragmatism and

experimentalism

both

assume that the universe

is ever changing and that the individual must interact

with the environment

solve

problems (Reinertsen and

Hedges, 1988, p. 129).

Pragmatists included Charles Peirce (1839-1914), William James (1842-1910), and John Dewey (1859-

1952).

Each held slightly different beliefs regarding pragmatism. Pierce believed that a connection exists

between an

action and the meaning derived from the action. Pierce said that an idea's meaning is found

its

conceivable

sensible effects

" and that a belief is generated through the habits of action (American

Pragmatism – 1, n.d.).

Reinertsen and Hedges (1988) suggest that pragmatism is an appropriate philosophical theory for

criminal

justice education. In an article discussing learning theories for adult learners, they synonymize

pragmatism

with

experimentalism and conclude that the philosophy is useful because it requires group

learning and

objective

thought. It is important to note that their recommendation focuses only on the

critical

thinking

aspects of

pragmatism as an investigative tool for applied policing and not on

pragmatism as it

was

developed by William

James.

William James –

Counterintuitively

Creating Fact from Belief

William James’ ideas about pragmatism differed from those of Peirce and Dewey. James’ beliefs are

worth

examining in a law enforcement context because of the apparent application of some of his ideas

modern

police administration.

James developed pragmatism as a theory of truth. True ideas, according to James, develop from

experience

ways that provide consistency, orderliness, and predictability. James described

pragmatism

with the

statement;

True ideas are those that we can assimilate, validate, corroborate, and

verify. False

ideas are

those that we

cannot.

" (Pragmatism, 1907, p. 77).

For law enforcement ethics instructors, the concept that information should be validated, corroborated

and

verified is credible. The segment of pragmatism that encourages the investigation and corroboration

truth

compatible with ethics training in law enforcement.

Some of James’ ideas are not useful in the context of applied policing. According to James,

(Pragmatism,

1907,

p. 77) pragmatism asks questions including; ”

Grant an idea or belief is true, what

concrete difference

will it's

being true make in anyone's actual life? How will the truth be realized? What

experiences will be

different from

those which would obtain if the belief were false? What, in short, is the

truth's cash-value in

experiential terms?

" In

an applied law enforcement context, James’ requirement for

introspective

interpretation of truth in an

individualized manner may be problematic. Analysis of the truth

by an irrational

thinker can lead to subjective

decision-making. For peace officers, the truth should not be

followed by the

question, “What’s in it for me?”

James also theorized that beliefs help create reality. He said, "

These, then, are my last words to you: Be

not

afraid of life. Believe that life is worth living, and your belief will help create that fact.

" (Albright, R.

Winter

2000,

17). This sort of self-hypnosis may be useful as a psychological technique for a

depressed person

attempting to

develop a positive attitude, however manufacturing fact from

metaphysical belief is not a

useful

process in law

enforcement administration. The troublesome aspect

of James’ version of

pragmatism for

teachers of ethics is

the concept that beliefs, once held, become

reality. In other words, an

idea, whether true

or false, becomes

actuality for the holder of the idea.

Consequently, an unethical

pragmatist can manipulate

facts and

circumstances to cause himself or

others to believe lies.

The 1837 children’s story, The Emperor’s New Suit, by Hans Christian Anderson provides a silly example

James’ version of pragmatism run amuck. The story describes a vain Emperor, deceived by

scoundrels

and

fearful followers to believe that he is clothed when he is in fact naked. For the misguided

emperor, the

deception

became his reality. Although the intimidated citizenry is quietly aware that the

emperor is naked,

they too are led

to believe that he is clothed. He parades naked down the street,

believing he is clothed. A

small child is the only

one brave and unwitting enough to mention that the

emperor has no clothes. The

story

is an exaggeration of the

pragmatic way in which a mistaken belief

can become reality.

The lessons of pragmatism are not lost in modern American police administration. Although few public

administrators would openly embrace the seemingly self-hypnotic tenants of James’ version

pragmatism,

all

are

keenly aware of theability to create reality through carefully spun publicity and

misinformation. Sadly,

there

is no

shortage of unwitting victims of unethical pragmatists. The philosophy

of pragmatism is as

applicable in

modern

society as it was when it first began in the 1800’s. James’

version of pragmatism

may

have found it’s

way into

modern police practice, as the following sections will

attempt to demonstrate.

The Newark, New Jersey Foot Patrol Experiment

: No effect on crime rates

In 1979, a widely publicized foot patrol experiment was conducted in Newark, New Jersey (Police

Foundation,

Foot Patrol Experiment). The experiment attempted to determine whether foot patrol made

citizens feel safer

and

reduced crime. Police who had previously patrolled only in vehicles instead walked

the beat and mingled

with

citizens on a more personal basis. The results of the foot patrol experiment are

summarized as follows:

Residents in areas where foot patrol was introduced clearly changed their attitudes about crime and how

they

felt about the safety and livability of their neighborhoods. They also were more satisfied with police

services.

While foot patrol had no effect on recorded crime rates, it should be remembered that citizens feel

threatened

non-criminal (disorderly) behavior as well, and that this threat of victimization may

dramatically

alter their

lives. In

response to a perceived threat, they may, for instance, nail their windows

shut, carry lethal

weapons,

or avoid

walking in their own neighborhood. Thus, fear can undermine the

viability of major cities

and erode

the quality of

urban dwellers.

The experiment’s summary ends with this interesting statement: Close contact between police and the

citizenry

helps the former develop first-hand information about crime and possible criminal behavior.

Such

information

systems are likely to have a positive long-term impact (Police Foundation, 1979).

The Newark experiment reflected a movement towards humanism in policing. Humanism in the context

policing emphasized peace officers acting not only as agents of the law but as change agents for

improving

human development, human understanding and the human condition of those being served

(Leonard,

1980).

The Newark foot patrol experiment and other similar confirming research marked a turning point in

American

policing. As a result, one new measure of police effectiveness was not the actual absence of

crime but the

mere

perception of an absence of crime. Offering vague and nebulous “long-term” impact

instead of

immediate

results, foot patrol was an acceptable answer for helpless officials fighting

burgeoning crime

problems in some

cities. According to the findings of the Newark, New Jersey foot

patrol

experiment, despite

the crime rate, those

citizens who saw the nearby cop walking the beat might

convince

themselves they were

safer.

Broken Windows

The “broken windows” theory of social disorder was developed and described by Wilson and Kelling in a

1982

article in the Atlantic. The article was based partly on the 1979 Newark foot patrol experiment. The

broken

windows theory states briefly that a community can deteriorate into major disorder and crime if no

one

attends to

maintenance of things such as broken windows, graffiti, and minor incidents of public

nuisance.

Wilson and

Kelling state:

Above all, we must return to our long-abandoned view that the police ought to protect communities

well as

individuals. Our crime statistics and victimization surveys measure individual losses, but

they

not

measure

communal losses. Just as physicians now recognize the importance of

fostering

health

rather than

simply

treating illness, so the police--and the rest of us--ought to

recognize the

importance of

maintaining,

intact,

communities without broken windows

(Wilson &

Kelling, 1982).

In their book, Fixing broken windows: restoring order and reducing crime in our communities (1996. p.

18)

Kelling and Cole reflect on the earlier Newark foot patrol experiment. They state:

…police officials were unimpressed with foot patrol, however citizen responses were uniformly

positive… Overwhelmingly, fear declined and citizen appreciation for police soared. Although foot

patrol did not reduce the incidence of serious crime, residents of foot-patrolled neighborhoods felt

more secure than did those in other areas, believed crime to have been reduced, and appeared to

take fewer measures to protect themselves from crime (such as staying home and locking doors).

The Newark foot patrol experiment and the Atlantic article by Wilson and Kelling contributed to popularize

foot

patrol as an alleged long-term way to reduce crime and improve police-community relations.

Politicians

began

demanding and promising police foot patrol as part of their political crime-fighting

platforms. Foot

patrol, and

later Community Based Policing programs, became susceptible to pressures

from special

interest groups and

political leaders (Trojanowicz & Harden, 1985, n.p.).

Police Community Relations and Community Based Policing

The phrase “police community relations” was first popularized in 1955 (Taylor, 1984, p. 146). Police

community

relations developed through the combined disciplines of sociology, psychology, education,

law

and political

science. It advocated improving the image of police through such tactics as public

speaking

engagements, open

houses and police athletic programs (Taylor, 1984, p. 156).

The 1970’s and 1980’s saw a shift towards what is now known as community based policing.

Community

based policing promotes cooperation and teamwork between law enforcement and the

public. Citizens are

encouraged to assist the police in non-enforcement tasks intended to improve the

overall community and

the

collective sense of public safety. (COPS, 2003)

Remnants of the public-service elements of Sir Robert Peel’s ideas are found in contemporary versions

community based policing. But Peel's ninth maxim, that the measure of police efficiency is the absence

crime,

was not a stated goal of many community based policing plans (Trojanowicz, Colgan, & Harden,

Community

policing programs: A twenty-year view, 1986). Focusing on cooperation and participation,

community based

policing continued to advocate shared responsibility for law enforcement with the

citizenry.

Increased cooperation between law enforcement and the public also meant increased access to the

police

citizens and the media. Citizens have active and legitimate interests in law enforcement work.

Popular

culture,

the media and entertainment all maintain macabre fascinations with the intricacies and

drama of

law

enforcement work. Action-adventure films and documentaries portray policing in

exhausting, and

sometimes-

inaccurate detail. Investigative reporters, sometimes motivated by producers

seeking improved

ratings and

additional viewers, work diligently to expose every sensationalized aspect

of police work in

ways

that will draw

viewers and sell advertising. It is likely that public perception is

dramatically effected by

such

exposure.

Today, police administrators are tasked with shaping public perception as an important job duty.

Improving

public opinion of the police is a frustrating goal for contemporary agency heads. Despite any

righteous

goals

related to law enforcement and the apprehension of criminals, a basic fact of police

agency life is

that they

are

dependent on their community for financial resources and support (Taylor,

1984, p. 157).

Molding the often fickle and sometimes misguided public consciousness is so important now that in

some

agencies it is a top goal. For example, in one major city, the number one goal of the Organized

Crime

Bureau

commander is listed as follows: Make the city the safest major city in America by raising

the public

perception

safety. Although state law in this unnamed jurisdiction defines peace officer as

one whose

duty

is to

maintain

public order and make arrests, the commanders’ list of goals make no

direct mention of

arrests.

This is not

surprising since theoretically, every arrest indicates that an unsafe

condition existed.

Increasing

arrest statistics

may only decrease the public perception of safety.

Disbanding the Organized

Crime Bureau

and re-deploying its

personnel as smiling public relations

specialists may be the best way

fulfill the goal of

raising the public

perception of safety.

For police ethics instructors there may be a dilemma. To what extent should ethics training recognize that

peace

officers are tasked with shifting public perception? How does one adhere to the rule of law and

report

the crime-

ridden truth while simultaneously raising the perception of safety?

Perception or Reality?

Edwin J. Delattre, author of Character and Cops: Ethics in Policing (1996, preface) describes an alarming

trend

towards appealing to public perception, potentially at the expense of law enforcement ethics. He

states:

I have been shocked and alarmed by a tendency I have witnessed in educational programs on

ethics

for police and police executives. I have repeatedly heard academics lawyers, reporters, and

other

outside “authorities” tell police that “appearances” and “public perceptions” matter more than

anything

else in policing, law enforcement, and other forms of public service.

I do not know any competent philosopher or student of ethics who would make such an indefensible

claim, especially in a setting where so much is at stake. After all, if you perceive me as your true and

loyal friend, when in reality I am a cheat and a liar who will take advantage of you when the time is

right,

which matters more to you: what you perceive me to be, or what I truly am? Which is of greater

importance to your well being, your perception or the truth?

As these simple questions show, the idea that perceptions are more important than everything else

false. Police should reject this dangerous idea. First, public perceptions of police (and everything

else)

are always varied. Some public perceptions are rational and fair-minded; others are

unfounded and

prejudiced. Second, public perceptions are notoriously fickle, changing as rapidly

as television

sound

bites. A police department or law enforcement agency that is driven by

adoration of appearances, by

preoccupation with public perceptions, can have no real focus,

mission or standards to which it is

durably faithful.

Delattre’s observations may have important implications for law enforcement ethics training. Ethics is

often

(correctly ) associated with obtaining the truth. What style of ethics training will be developed by the

police

administrators who are led by the “authorities” Delattre describes? Delattre comments further:

A police department or law enforcement agency should be determined to deserve the confidence

and

trust of the public, not merely to appear to be worthy. If its members care most of all about

public

perceptions, they will be tempted to deceive the public by covering up wrongdoing and

mistakes

rather

than improving themselves, their policies, their practices, their trustworthiness.

Reality matters.

But no element of responsible policing and law enforcement is compatible with the indefensible

claim

that perceptions or appearances are themselves the most important reality.

Delattre’s comments are important for law enforcement ethics instructors and for developers of police

ethics training. Ethics training tools must be applied in ways that guard against their use as weapons

of manipulation.

Summary

This page described the path of policing theory from Sir Robert Peel through the growth

pragmatism in

the 1800's to contemporary community based policing theory. While citizens continue to

fear

crime, experts

recognize that it will never be eradicated. Embarrassed by an inability to erase crime,

public

administrators

sought alternative ways to appease the public. Foot patrol, although proven not to

reduce

crime,

succeeded

in causing citizens to simply believe they were safer and offered potential long-

term

benefits.

Through the 1980's and beyond, some leaders tacitly embraced an unwritten policy of attempting to

manipulate

public opinion. While there is no evidence of law enforcement leaders openly subscribing to

James’ version of

pragmatism, it seems that the policy of manipulating reality was often quietly accepted.

Community based

policing followed, with increased emphasis on citizen, media and police interaction

designed to improve the

perception of public safety.

Frustrated law enforcement officials now devote increased resources to building positive public images

and

improving their agencies’ approval ratings. As William James said, opinion, not necessarily fact,

becomes

reality. Pragmatisms’ inclination towards self-deception as not openly endorsed as a guiding

philosophy but

tendency towards manipulating public image seems to indicate an association in

practice

between

pragmatism

and modern policing.

Philosophers including Delatrre are dismayed at the notion that public opinion is the most important

aspect

policing. From Peel’s time to the present, some agencies have tacitly endorsed a pathology

encouraging

subtle

deception in the name of improved public image. The predilection may create a

dilemma for ethics

trainers

employed by organizations devoted to improving public image above all else.

For ethics trainers, it is

important to

be aware of this trend and to guard against being unduly influenced

it.

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Purchase the book:

Kardasz, F. (2008). Ethics training for law enforcement: Practices and trends.

Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag.

ISBN: 3639001567. ISBN-13: 9783639001563.

Available from

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